University of Miami Organizational Communications Discussion

Organizational Communication
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Organizational Communication:
Approaches and Processes
SEVENTH EDITION
Katherine Miller
Arizona State University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Organizational Communication:
Approaches and Processes, Seventh Edition
Katherine Miller
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About the Author
Dr. Katherine Miller is a leading scholar on processes of emotion and compassion
in the workplace. She holds bachelor’s and master’s degrees in communication
from Michigan State University, and a doctorate from the Annenberg School of
Communication at the University of Southern California. She is currently a professor at Arizona State University and has also served on the faculties of Michigan
State University, University of Kansas, and Texas A&M University. Dr. Miller is
the author of four books and more than sixty journal articles and book chapters.
v
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Brief Contents
Preface xvii
CHAPTER 1
The Challenge of Organizational Communication
CHAPTER 2
Classical Approaches 17
CHAPTER 3
Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches 37
CHAPTER 4
Systems and Cultural Approaches 60
CHAPTER 5
Constitutive Approaches 82
CHAPTER 6
Critical and Feminist Approaches 99
CHAPTER 7
Socialization Processes 119
CHAPTER 8
Decision-Making Processes 139
CHAPTER 9
Conflict Management Processes
158
CHAPTER 10 Organizational Change and Leadership Processes
CHAPTER 11 Processes of Emotion in the Workplace
CHAPTER 12 Organizational Diversity Processes
CHAPTER 13 Technological Processes
1
176
195
216
235
CHAPTER 14 The Changing Landscape of Organizations
254
Glossary 271
References 281
Name Index 309
Subject Index 317
vii
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Contents
Preface xvii
CHAPTER 1
The Challenge of Organizational Communication
Our Complicated World
1
2
Globalization 3
Terrorism 4
CASE IN POINT: Can Tragedy Lead to Change? 5
Climate Change 7
Changing Demographics 8
CASE IN POINT: 400 Million People 10
Complicating Our Thinking about Organizations 11
Complicating Our Thinking about Communication 12
Looking Ahead
CHAPTER 2
14
Classical Approaches 17
The Machine Metaphor 18
Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management
Elements of Management 19
Principles of Management 20
Principles of Organizational Structure
19
20
Principles of Organizational Power 21
Principles of Organizational Reward 22
Principles of Organizational Attitude 22
Summary of Fayol’s Theory 22
CASE IN POINT: Are There Limits to Rewards?
23
Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy 23
Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management
Impetus for the Theory of Scientific Management
Components of Scientific Management 26
CASE IN POINT: Systematic Surgery 27
Communication in Classical Approaches
25
26
28
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Scientific Management—The Internet Update
29
ix
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x
Contents
Content of Communication 30
Direction of Communication Flow
Channel of Communication 31
Style of Communication 31
30
Classical Management in Organizations Today
32
Classical Structure in Today’s Organizations 32
Classical Job Design and Rewards in Today’s Organizations
CASE STUDY: The Creamy Creations Takeover 35
CHAPTER 3
33
Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches 37
The Human Relations Approach
38
From Classical Theory to Human Relations: The Hawthorne
Studies 38
The Illumination Studies 38
The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies 38
The Interview Program 39
The Bank Wiring Room Studies 39
Explanations of Findings in the Hawthorne Studies
39
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory 40
CASE IN POINT: Satisfying Higher-Order Needs by Satisfying Lower-Order
Needs 42
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y 42
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Communicating Like a Theory Y Leader 44
The Human Resources Approach
45
Impetus for the Human Resources Approach
45
Do Human Relations Principles Work? 46
Misuse of Human Relations Principles 47
CASE IN POINT: Slashing Emergency Room Waiting Times
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid 48
Likert’s System IV 50
48
Communication in Human Relations and Human
Resources Organizations 52
Content of Communication 52
Direction of Communication Flow
Channel of Communication 52
Style of Communication 53
52
Human Relations and Human Resources Organizations Today
53
The What of Human Resources Programs 54
The How of Human Resources Programs 55
CASE IN POINT: From the Golf Course to the Gym 56
CASE STUDY: Teamwork at Marshall’s Processing Plant 58
CHAPTER 4
Systems and Cultural Approaches 60
The Systems Metaphor and Systems Concepts
System Components 61
Hierarchical Ordering
61
61
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Contents
xi
CASE IN POINT: Searching the Internet for Cultural Values 76
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Building Systems and Cultures of Compassion
CASE STUDY: The Cultural Tale of Two Shuttles 79
77
Interdependence 62
Permeability 62
System Processes 63
System Properties 63
Holism 64
Equifinality 64
Negative Entropy
Requisite Variety
64
64
Systems Approaches to Organizational Communication
Communication Networks
66
66
Properties of Networks 66
Properties of Network Links 67
Network Roles 67
Explanatory Mechanisms 67
Karl Weick’s Theory of Organizing 68
CASE IN POINT: Making Sense of My Money
The Cultural Metaphor
70
71
Prescriptive Approaches to Culture
72
Deal and Kennedy’s “Strong Cultures” 72
Peters and Waterman’s “Excellent Cultures”
72
Descriptive and Explanatory Approaches to Culture
Organizational Cultures Are Complicated 74
Organizational Cultures Are Emergent 75
Organizational Cultures Are Not Unitary 75
Organizational Cultures Are Often Ambiguous
CHAPTER 5
74
76
Constitutive Approaches 82
Communicative Constitution of Organizations
The Montreal School 85
83
Text and Conversation 85
Constitution as “Scaling Up” 86
Current Directions 87
CASE IN POINT: The Textual Power of Emoticons 88
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Constituting Collaboration
The Four Flows
89
90
Membership Negotiation 90
Self-Structuring 91
Activity Coordination 91
CASE IN POINT: The Four Flows—Vatican Style
Institutional Positioning 93
CASE STUDY: A Drop in the Bucket 96
93
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xii
Contents
CHAPTER 6
Critical and Feminist Approaches 99
Critical Approaches
101
The Pervasiveness of Power
101
Control of Modes and Means of Production
Control of Organizational Discourse 104
103
Ideology and Hegemony 105
CASE IN POINT: Power of the Pretty 106
Emancipation 106
Resistance 107
A Theory of Concertive Control 108
Identification 109
Discipline 109
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Patriarchy in Public and Private Life
Feminist Approaches
110
111
CASE IN POINT: Using the F Word 113
Sexual Harassment 114
Discourse at Women-Led Businesses 115
Disciplined Bodies 115
CASE STUDY: Talking Turkey 117
CHAPTER 7
Socialization Processes 119
Models of Organizational Socialization
Phases of Socialization
120
120
Anticipatory Socialization
Encounter 122
121
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Organizational Entry as a Laughing Matter
Metamorphosis
123
123
Content of Socialization 124
Summary of Socialization Models
125
Communication Processes During Socialization
Recruiting and Interviewing 125
CASE IN POINT: The 140 Character Résumé
125
126
The Interview as a Recruiting and Screening Tool 127
The Interview as an Information-Gathering Tool 127
The Interview as a Tool for Socialization 128
Newcomer Information-Seeking Tactics
Role-Development Processes 130
128
Role-Taking Phase 130
Role-Making Phase 130
Role-Routinization Phase 131
Beyond the Leadership Dyad 131
Organizational Exit 133
CASE IN POINT: The Economics of Exit and Entry
CASE STUDY: The Church Search 136
133
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Contents
CHAPTER 8
xiii
Decision-Making Processes 139
Models of the Decision-Making Process
140
Rational Models of Decision Making 140
Alternatives to Rational Models 140
CASE IN POINT: Personal Finance Decisions 141
CASE IN POINT: Big Data 142
Small-Group Decision Making
143
Descriptive Models of Small-Group Decision Making
Effective Small-Group Decision Making 144
Beyond Rational Group Processes 146
Participation and Collaboration
143
146
Participation in Decision-Making
147
The Affective Model 147
The Cognitive Model 148
Evidence for Models of Participation
148
Workplace Democracy 149
Collaboration Processes 150
Communication and Organizational Knowledge 151
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Who Are the Experts? 152
CASE STUDY: Too Many Majors 156
CHAPTER 9
Conflict Management Processes 158
Conceptualizing the Conflict Process
159
Defining Conflict 159
Levels of Organizational Conflict 160
Phases of Organizational Conflict 160
Managing Organizational Conflict
Conflict Styles
161
162
Description 162
Critique of Conflict Styles Construct
New Directions 164
163
Bargaining and Negotiation 165
CASE IN POINT: Working with Jerks 165
Third-Party Conflict Resolution 167
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Framing Intractable Conflict
168
Factors Influencing the Conflict Management Process
169
Personal Factors 169
Relational Factors 170
Cultural Factors 170
A Feminist View of Conflict 171
CASE IN POINT: Cat Fight 172
CASE STUDY: The Problem with Teamwork
174
CHAPTER 10 Organizational Change and Leadership Processes
Organizational Change Processes
176
177
The Complexity of Organizational Change
Reactions to Organizational Change 178
177
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xiv
Contents
Communication in the Change Process 180
“Unplanned” Change: Organizational Crisis 182
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Equivocal Reponses to Crisis
Organizational Leadership
185
Models of Leadership 185
CASE IN POINT: Leaderless Music 186
CASE IN POINT: Horse Whispering for Leaders
Communication and Leadership
188
188
CASE STUDY: Leading Nurses through Hospital Change
CHAPTER 11 Processes of Emotion in the Workplace
Emotion in the Workplace
184
193
195
196
Emotion as Part of the Job 197
CASE IN POINT: “The Cruise from Hell” 197
Emotion as Part of Workplace Relationships 199
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Lining Up for Emotion 200
Emotion Rules and Emotional Intelligence 202
Stress, Burnout, and Social Support in the Workplace
Burnout 204
Communication as a Cause of Burnout
205
Emotional Labor as a Contributor to Burnout
Empathy, Communication, and Burnout 206
Coping with Burnout
203
206
208
Individual and Organizational Coping Strategies 208
Communicative Coping: Participation in Decision Making
Communicative Coping: Social Support 209
CASE IN POINT: Stretched Thin in the Emergency Room
CASE STUDY: Inexplicable Events 213
CHAPTER 12 Organizational Diversity Processes
210
216
Women and Minorities in Today’s Organizations
CASE IN POINT: Judging Women 218
Stereotyping and Discrimination 219
Relational Barriers in Organizational Systems
Beyond Women and Minorities 221
CASE IN POINT: Sensitivity Training 223
The Multicultural Organization
209
217
220
223
The Diverse Organization: Opportunities 225
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Questioning the Business Case
The Diverse Organization: Challenges 227
Avoiding Negative Effects of Diversity Management Programs
Balancing Work and Home 229
227
228
Managing (and Celebrating) Cultural Diversity 230
CASE STUDY: The Complex Challenges of Encouraging Diversity
233
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Contents
CHAPTER 13 Technological Processes
xv
235
Types of Organizational Communication Technology
CASE IN POINT: Don’t Forget the Thank-You Note
Understanding Technology Adoption and Use
The Importance of Technology Attributes
The Importance of Social Factors 242
236
237
239
240
Effects of Information and Communication Technology
243
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: Doodling in the Age of Technology 245
Social Media: From Public Relations to Politics and Justice 246
Virtual Organizing and Telework 246
CASE IN POINT: Caring at a Distance 248
CASE STUDY: High-Tech Gardening 252
CHAPTER 14 The Changing Landscape of Organizations
254
Communication in the Global Workplace
Effects of Globalization
255
257
Communication in an Era of Shifting Identity
CASE IN POINT: Image Gone Viral
260
261
Communication in a Service Economy
262
SPOTLIGHT ON SCHOLARSHIP: What Can You Do with That Major?
Communication in the Age of the Disposable Worker
265
266
CASE IN POINT: Generation Y in the Workplace 268
CASE STUDY: Charting the Changing Nature of Work 269
Glossary 271
References 281
Name Index 309
Subject Index 317
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Preface
As I have noted in the previous editions of this book, the “ages” of scholarly fields
are notoriously hard to pinpoint. Most would agree, however, that organizational
communication has been around for well over six decades. The infancy of the discipline was marked by struggles for survival and nurturance from other disciplines.
The discipline’s teenage years—the time when I was entering the field—saw a questioning of identity and fights for autonomy. Today, organizational communication
has reached a maturity few would have envisioned in the middle of the twentieth
century, and the field now encompasses a healthy eclecticism, in that a variety of
theoretical approaches provides contrasting accounts of the ways in which communicating and organizing intersect. And this is definitely a good thing, for few would
have predicted the changes that have occurred in our world—changes in politics,
business, technology, values, the environment. We need a solid but dynamic understanding of organizational communication to cope with this complex and changing
world.
This book attempts to reflect the eclectic maturity of the field of organizational
communication. When I began writing the first edition of this book almost twenty
years ago, my first conceptual decision was not to advocate a particular approach
to the field. Instead, I tried to show that both traditional and contemporary perspectives provide potentially illuminating views of organizational communication
processes.
For example, a critical theorist, an ethnographer, and a systems researcher
may all look at a particular organizational communication phenomenon—say, socialization practices—and see very different things. A systems theorist might see a
cybernetic system in which the goal of organizational assimilation is enhanced
through a variety of structural and individual communication mechanisms. A cultural researcher might see socialization as a process through which the values and
practices of an organizational culture are revealed to—and created by—individuals
during organizational entry. A critical theorist might see socialization as a process
through which individuals are drawn into hegemonic relationships that reinforce
the traditional power structure of the organization.
All these views of the organizational socialization process are limited in that
each obscures some aspects of organizational entry. But each view is also illuminating. Thus, early chapters of this book cover a gamut of academic approaches—from
classical through human relations and human resources to systems, cultural, and
xvii
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xviii Preface
critical—as lenses through which organizational communication can be viewed. The
strengths and weaknesses of each approach are considered, but no particular approach is presented as inherently superior.
My next important choice in writing this book was deciding how to organize
the voluminous research literature on organizational communication. At the time I
started writing this book, most textbooks had taken a “levels” approach, considering in turn organizational communication at the individual, dyadic, group, and organizational levels. I find this approach frustrating both because there are some
things that happen at multiple levels (for example, we make decisions alone, in
dyads, and in groups) and because there are processes that are not easily linked to
any of these levels. (For example, where does communication technology fit in? At
what level do we consider emotion in the workplace?) Thus, the chapters in the
second half of this textbook involve a consideration of organizational communication processes.
My goals in the “processes” portion of the book are fourfold. First, I want the
processes considered to be up to date in reflecting current concerns of both organizational communication scholars and practitioners. Thus, in addition to looking at
traditional concerns, such as decision making and conflict, this textbook highlights
communication processes related to cultural and gender diversity, communication
technology, organizational change, and emotional approaches to organizational
communication. Second, I want to be as comprehensive as possible in describing
relevant theory and research on each topic. Thus, each “process” chapter highlights both foundational and current research on organizational communication
processes from the fields, including communication, management, industrial psychology, and sociology. Third, I want students to understand that each of these
communication processes can be viewed through a variety of theoretical lenses, so
I conclude each chapter with a section on the insights of the approaches considered
in the first half of the book. Finally, I want readers to realize that organizational
communication is a concern to individuals beyond the ivory towers of academia.
Thus, I have included many real-world examples both in the discussion of each
process and in pedagogical features.
ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT
This textbook explores the world of organizational communication in terms of both
scholarship and application. The majority of chapters consider either approaches
that have shaped our beliefs about organizational communication practice and
study (Chapters 2–6) or chapters that consider specific organizational communication processes (Chapters 7–13). The first two chapters on “approaches” (Chapters
2–3) both consider prescriptive approaches on how organizational communication
should operate (Classical Approaches, Human Relations, and Human Resources
Approaches), while the following three approaches chapters (Chapters 4–6) consider
contemporary approaches regarding how we can best describe, understand, explain,
and critique organizational communication (Systems and Cultural approaches, Constitutive Approaches, and Critical Approaches). When we move on to the “processes” chapters, we first consider enduring processes that have always
characterized communication in organizations in Chapters 7 to 10 (Assimilation
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Preface
xix
Processes, Decision-Making Processes, Conflict Management Processes, and Change
and Leadership Processes). Then, in Chapters 11 to 13, we look at emerging processes that have come into play in recent decades (Processes of Emotion in the
Workplace, Organizational Diversity Processes, and Technological Processes). These
chapters are bracketed by an introductory chapter (Chapter 1) and a concluding
chapter (Chapter 14) that put these approaches and processes into context by considering specific challenges in today’s world and the ways in which the study of organizational communication can help us deal with these challenges.
Those familiar with this textbook will note a number of changes from the sixth
edition, which will enhance student understanding of organizational communication.
One major change is a brand new chapter considering constitutive approaches
(Chapter 5). Ideas regarding the communicative constitution of organization (CCO)
have become increasingly important in our discipline in recent years, and I decided
that these developments deserved a chapter-long consideration in this new edition.
Chapter 6 has also been revised to consider feminist approaches as distinct from critical theory. In addition, all of the chapters have been updated to include current research and theory, leading to the addition of well over one hundred new references,
with particular emphasis on current events and contemporary research conducted
by communication scholars. The seventh edition of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes continues from the first six editions many features
that are designed to develop students’ abilities to integrate and apply the material.
The seventh edition continues to include the “Spotlight on Scholarship” features,
highlighting specific research that illustrates concepts considered in the chapter—six
spotlights are new to this edition. I have retained other pedagogical features from
earlier editions, including explicit links among the “approach” and “process” chapters, learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter, key concepts at the end of
the chapters, tables and figures to illustrate key concepts, and case studies to apply
conceptual material to real-life organizational communication situations. One of my
favorite features of this textbook—the “Case in Point” feature that began in the
fourth edition—continues in the seventh edition. One of the most fun tasks during
this process of revising the textbook has been discovering and writing about current
events that reflect a variety of concerns about organizational communication. There
are many new “Case in Point” features in this revision, as well as some from the previous editions with which I couldn’t part.
Like earlier editions, this seventh edition is accompanied by an Instructor’s
Manual, revised by Zachary Hart of Northern Kentucky University, which includes sample syllabi; paper assignments; key terms; chapter outlines; true/false,
multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay test items; suggestions for effective use
of the case studies; and helpful websites. The Instructor’s Manual also includes
“Case Study,” “Spotlight on Scholarship,” and “Case in Point” features from previous editions. This edition also offers predesigned Microsoft PowerPoint presentations, also created by Zachary Hart. These are available on the Instructor
Companion Site, which also contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Manual and Cognero Computerized Testing.
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xx
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
When you are asked to write a textbook, you don’t realize the work that will be
involved in writing subsequent editions of that textbook. It is challenging to maintain the focus of earlier editions and keep what is foundational yet also provide the
needed updates, restructuring, and sprucing up necessary for new groups of students. However, the daunting task of revision can be made relatively painless
through the efforts of a great support system. First, the team at Cengage Learning
has been helpful throughout the process of revision.
The comments of a number of organizational communication scholars were instrumental in shaping the direction, content, and presentation of this textbook. These
include colleagues around the country who commented on the revision project at
various stages: Kathy Krone, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Kurt Lindemann, San
Diego State University; Irwin Mallin, Indiana University-Purdue University Fort
Wayne; Michael Pagano, Fairfield University; Brian Richardson, University of North
Texas; Matt Sanders, Utah State University; and Sandra Starnaman, Adams State
University.
I am also grateful to organizational communication scholars for their ongoing
research that is of such high quality and importance to real-world problems. As I
was working on this revision, I found myself marveling at the development of our
discipline’s scholarship in a number of journals, but especially Management Communication Quarterly. New ideas for the “Case in Point” feature were often garnered from the “Organizational Communication in the News” Facebook page.
And I’m happy that Owen Lynch and Zach Schaefer allowed me to adapt their paper (and Owen’s experiences) for the Chapter 5 case study.
Finally, my most heartfelt thanks go to my friends and family for providing an
environment in which writing this textbook was a pleasurable challenge. My daughter, Kalena Margaret Miller, was born while I was writing the first edition of this
textbook. I’m amazed that she is now more than halfway through college—a young
woman who continues to love learning and increasingly challenges my ideas with
her own experiences and insights. She is a delight and an inspiration. Other family
members—Jim, Mary, Barb, Ann, and a host of others—have provided great support
and helpful suggestions. And my widespread friends—both real life and Facebook—
consistently remind me of the wealth of experiences we all have as we navigate the
complexities of organizational communication.
Katherine Miller
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The Challenge
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After Reading This Chapter, You Should …
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Be able to describe how today’s world is complicated by globalization, terrorism, climate change, and changing demographics.
Understand the concept of “requisite variety” and appreciate the need for complex
thinking to cope with complex situations.
See ways in which we can complicate our thinking about organizations both by considering a variety of organizational forms and by viewing organizations that are often paradoxical and contradictory.
Understand the distinction between a “transmission model” of communication and a
“constitutive model” of communication.
Be familiar with the seven conceptualizations of communication and the ways in which
these domains of understanding can change our view of organizational communication.
In March 2013, Facebook reported having 1.11 billion users—approximately one
out of seven people around the globe, and clearly a higher proportion in many
parts of the world. As these billion-plus users contemplate the possibilities for
establishing and updating their personal information on the site, they are met with
a variety of possibilities for specifying relational status including single, married,
engaged, in an open relationship, divorced, widowed, in a civil union, in a domestic partnership. In the midst of the list of options, one stands out as different from
the rest—“it’s complicated.” That simple statement could be seen as defining much
of our twenty-first-century world and our lives within that world. Our relationships are complicated. Our families are complicated. Our work is complicated.
Our politics and government are complicated. Our global economy is complicated.
Our connections with other nation-states are complicated. Our beliefs about ourselves are complicated.
1
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2
Chapter 1
Nowhere is this complexity more apparent than in a consideration of communication processes or in a consideration of organizations, institutions, and social
groupings. There is little doubt that our organizational world is much more complicated than the world of 100 years ago (think of agriculture, increasing industrialization, and the birth of the assembly line) or the world of sixty years ago (think
of moving to the suburbs, long-term employment, and Father Knows Best) or even
twenty-five years ago (think of cross-functional work teams, the early years of the
Internet, and the fracturing of the proverbial glass ceiling). Mark Penn (2007) contends that we have moved from the age of Ford, in which you could have a car in
“any color, as long as it’s black,” to the age of Starbucks, in which the variety of
beverages available is truly staggering. As advertising campaigns, in-store signs,
and the person ordering in front of us constantly remind us, there are thousands
of ways to customize a latte or a Frappuccino®. However, this is not to say that
past time periods have not taught us a great deal about ways to understand the
complexity of our world today or provided us with strategies for coping with the
high levels of complexity that confront us. Indeed, on a daily basis, we as individuals, families, organizations, and societies find ways to live productively in this
complicated world.
This textbook takes you on a journey of understanding into the complex world
of organizational communication and the role of interacting individuals and groups
within that world. This journey will involve trips to the past to consider how scholars and practitioners have historically approached issues relevant to organizational
communication. It will also involve the consideration of a wide range of processes
that make organizations complicated and that help us cope with that complexity.
These include processes of socialization, decision making, conflict management,
technology, emotion, and diversity.
In this first chapter, however, we will take an initial look at ways in which
today’s organizational world is complicated. This initial look will be a brief and
partial one, but it will introduce some of the ways in which participants in twentyfirst-century organizations are confronted with confounding and challenging
problems. We will then consider strategies for thinking about the concepts of “organization” and “communication” that will assist us on our journey as we explore
approaches and processes in the understanding of organizational communication.
OUR COMPLICATED WORLD
There are myriad ways we could illustrate the complexity of today’s world, and as
we work our way through this textbook, we will discuss many of the “complicated” issues that confront us. In the last chapter, we will look at how the landscape of organizational communication has changed in recent years and will
continue to change in the future. In this chapter, however, we consider four aspects
of our world that were barely on the radar several decades ago but that today
dominate much of our thinking—and our news coverage. They are globalization,
terrorism, climate change, and changing demographics.
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
3
Globalization
It has become a truism to state that we now live in a global economy and participate in a global marketplace. As transportation and telecommunication systems
improve, our world becomes ever more connected in economic, political, organizational, and personal terms. As one analyst summarized, “welcome to the new
global economy: One guy sneezes, and someone else gets a cold” (Bremmer,
2012). The emergence of a global economy was facilitated by key political changes,
such as the end of the cold war and the development of the European Union, and it
has included the emergence of a variety of institutions to help regulate the global
economy, such as the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary
Fund. The globalization movement has led to practices such as outsourcing, in
which businesses move manufacturing and service centers to countries where labor
is cheap. In a global economy, many organizations have a multinational or international presence, with employees of a single organization found in many locations
worldwide. Furthermore, in a global economy, businesses are no longer centered
in a few Western nations but are also spread among nations throughout the developing world.
The complexity of these global interconnections became especially clear during
the global recession that began in 2007. As one analytical website summarized: “A
collapse of the US sub-prime mortgage market and the reversal of the housing
boom in other industrialized economies … had a ripple effect around the world”
(“Global Financial Crisis,” 2009). Though the United States began to emerge from
its recession in 2012 and 2013, European nations took a different tack in responding to the crisis and continued to struggle during that period. And Bremmer (2012)
notes that “the economy that should scare us the most right now is the Chinese
one. The country is slowing down, and that’s precisely because of the halting
recovery and weakness in the U.S. and European systems, and the fact that the
sputtering has been going on for some time.”
Some commentators see globalization as a largely positive—and clearly
unstoppable—development. For example, in The World Is Flat (2005), Thomas
Friedman argues that the global economy offers exciting opportunities for entrepreneurs with the requisite skills. However, many others argue that globalization can
lead to problems such as domestic job loss, the exploitation of workers in thirdworld nations, and environmental problems. Indeed, some scholars have raised
important questions about the extent to which models of capitalism developed in
the United States should be exported to nations with very different governmental
and cultural systems (e.g., Whitley, 2009).
It becomes clear from all sides of the debate that our new world involves complex interconnections between business, political, and cultural systems, and these
interconnections make it difficult to fully understand the ramifications of both
globalization systems and the proposed means for making globalization “work”
effectively. Joseph Stiglitz, who critiques economic institutions associated with
globalization in his 2002 book Globalization and Its Discontents, noted in 2006
that there is at least hope for dealing with these complex problems. He argues that
“while globalization’s critics are correct in saying it has been used to push a particular set of values, this need not be so. Globalization does not have to be bad for
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4
Chapter 1
the environment, increase inequality, weaken cultural diversity, and advance corporate interests at the expense of the well-being of ordinary citizens” (Stiglitz, 2006,
p. xv). More recently, economist Dani Rodrick has argued that it may be necessary
to scale back on the “hyperglobalization” that comes from deeply integrated economic systems in order to enhance the goals of national sovereignty and democratic politics.
The field of organizational communication can contribute a great deal to these
debates about globalization. The challenges of globalization are not just economic—
they also concern messages, relationships, and systems of understanding. Some of the
questions that organizational communication scholars now consider in the area of
globalization include:
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How can organizational members communicate effectively in the contracted
time and space of global markets?
How can communication be used to enhance understanding in the multicultural workplaces that are a crucial feature of our global economy?
How can communication processes in business, government, and nongovernmental organizations be used to protect the rights of workers in the United
States and abroad?
How does “organizing” occur in the realm of the political and economic policy
debates that are critical to the long-term direction of the global economy?
How do corporations communicate about the balance between providing
goods and services at a price preferred by consumers and providing a safe and
economically secure workplace for their employees?
Terrorism
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, changed the world in profound ways.
In the years following 9/11, subsequent attacks in London, Madrid, Bali, India, and
elsewhere—combined with frequent news stories about attacks that have been
thwarted and individuals arrested for planning more attacks—make it clear that
terrorism will be a watchword in our lives for many years to come. In recent
years, terrorism once more hit home for U.S. citizens with the attack on the Libyan
consulate in Benghazi on September 11, 2012, and the 2013 bombings at the finish
line of the Boston Marathon. As Oliver (2007, p. 19) notes, “in the wake of the
attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 9/11, the conventional
wisdom was that ‘everything has changed.’” However, as Rosemary O’Kane
(2007) points out in her book Terrorism: A Short History of a Big Idea, terrorists
have been around for many centuries, and terrorism can be perpetrated by
individuals, groups, nation-states, and regimes. She notes that terrorism is not a
particular ideology but is a set of strategies that involves the use of unpredictable
violence against individuals and thus creates ongoing fear and suspicion among
large groups of people. The effectiveness of terrorism today can be enhanced
both by the wide range of technological tools available to terrorists and by contemporary urban environments that have high concentrations of residents and mass
transportation.
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
5
Case in Point: Can Tragedy Lead to Change?
On April 24, 2013, more than 900 garment workers
were killed in a catastrophic building collapse at a
factory in Bangladesh’s Rana Plaza. It was the
world’s worst industrial disaster since the massive
gas leak tragedy in Bhopal, India, in 1984. Greenwald and Hirsch (2013) note that the reaction to the
factory collapse followed a typical pattern: “News
article after news article focuses on finding the
smoking gun, as if there were only one cause and
as if minus that cause, those workers would be safe
today. Or coverage treats these tragedies as natural
disasters with a rush of charity before public attention turns to the next event.”
Greenwald and Hirsch (2013), however, believe
that the tragedy in Bangladesh should be used as
an impetus to spur on communication about the
global apparel industry. Because corporations outsource a great deal of the labor associated with
producing clothing, the cost of apparel has fallen
39% since 1994. Some may see this as a worthy
outcome of globalization, but Greenwald and
Hirsch ask “to what extent is our demand for a $5
T-shirt or deep discounts on jeans responsible for
disasters like this?” They compare the building
collapse in Bangladesh to an industrial disaster of
a century earlier—the Triangle Shirtwaist factory
fire in New York City in 1911—and note that this
fire (in which 146 were killed) has “become a
stand-in for the terrible problems of an industrializing nation” and led to collective protests that
eventually resulted in important safety codes, regulations, and labor law reforms. Though obviously
many things have changed in 100 years, the processes of globalization have led to disturbing similarities: “Our clothes come from places like Rana,
where the average work is, as in 1911, a young girl
working in terrible conditions for starvation wages”
(Greenwald & Hirsch, 2013). Though the issues are
complex and implicate issues of economics, local
government, and culture, we can only hope that
horrible events like this can open up dialogue
regarding the moral responsibility of consumers
to support workers who toil in the global
marketplace.
For individuals and organizations in the post-9/11 world, the implications of
terrorism are everywhere but can be especially seen in two widespread areas: the
war on terror and homeland security. Perhaps the most basic concern is for an
understanding of how terrorist networks and terrorist organizations are constituted, operate, and grow (Stohl & Stohl, 2007, 2011). Such an understanding
would involve a consideration of how terrorist organizations recruit and socialize
their members, how terrorist cells make decisions and develop leadership, and
how terrorist networks form interconnections through technology and interpersonal contact. But a consideration of the war on terror has also come to encompass
military interventions, such as the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Thus, organizational communication scholars must also be cognizant of the complex communication processes involved in military actions and bureaucracy and the complexities of
dealing with military personnel and their families during and after their service.
The implications of the war on terror for organizational communication also
include complex political negotiations with a wide range of government entities
and the creation and dissemination of organizational rhetoric to connect institutional goals with public opinion. In the communication discipline, one important
direction for research has been led by Steve Corman and his colleagues at the Center for Strategic Communication at Arizona State University. These scholars have
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6
Chapter 1
considered the ways in which a narrative approach can be instrumental in understanding issues including Islamist extremism (Halverson, Goodall & Corman,
2011), the war in Afghanistan (Corman, 2013), and counterterrorism and public
diplomacy (Corman, Trethewey & Goodall, 2008).
Organizational communication scholars can also respond to the complexities of
terrorism through a consideration of homeland security. When Brian Michael Jenkins
of the RAND Corporation testified before the Homeland Security Subcommittee of
the U.S. House of Representatives on January 30, 2007, he made it clear that homeland security is, at its heart, a problem of organizational communication. He notes:
Homeland security is not a television show about mysterious government agencies,
covert military units, or heroes with fantastic cell phones that summon F-16s. It is an
ongoing construction project that builds upon philosophy and strategy to ensure effective organization, establish rules and procedures, deploy new technology, and educate
a vast army of federal agents, local police, part-time soldiers, private security guards,
first responders, medical personnel, public health officials, and individual citizens.
(Jenkins, 2007, p. 1)
For organizational communication scholars, then, critical questions revolve
around how to develop communication systems to enhance border security,
improve tracking of possible terrorist activities, and develop the ability of firstresponse organizations—police departments, fire departments, hospitals, military—
to act quickly and appropriately in case of terrorist threats or attacks. But organizational communication scholars can go beyond this mandate to consider the role
of the individual citizen as he or she encounters this organized effort of homeland
security. At times, these questions will concern public relations and crisis communication, as we consider ways in which homeland security issues can be best framed
and conveyed to a wide range of people. At other times, these questions will
involve how organizations can manage the daily operations of homeland security,
such as airport security or the passport application process, in a way that conveys
understanding for the frustrations of ordinary citizens. For example, the Spotlight
on Scholarship included in Chapter 11 (Malvini Redden, 2013) highlights how
standing in airport security lines heightens the emotions of today’s travelers. At
still other times, organizational communication scholars can contribute by enhancing our understanding of high-level policy debates in which conflicts arise between
the need for security and the preservation of civil liberties.
Thus, in terms of the war on terror and in terms of homeland security, our
post-9/11 world illustrates the complexity of questions that confront organizational
communication scholars and students. These questions include:
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•
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How do terror networks organize, recruit, and socialize members and communicate across time and space?
What communication systems can and should be put into place to best ensure
the security of our borders?
How can we help prevent our fear of terror from becoming a fear of each other?
How can we best deliberate policy and make decisions in the changed environment of our post-9/11 world?
How can communication systems be designed to protect and enhance the wellbeing of individuals who serve as first responders in the war on terror?
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
7
Climate Change
Almost a decade ago, in his bestselling book An Inconvenient Truth (2006), Al
Gore argues that humanity’s role in climate change is an issue that can no longer
be denied and must be addressed by governments, businesses, and individuals.
Increasing attention has been drawn by scientific data about upward shifts in overall global temperature, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events. The vast
majority of scientists now agree that recent changes in our climate—caused by the
phenomenon known as global warming—can be attributed to the activities of individuals and organizations. Marlon, Leiserowitz, and Feinberg (2013) report that
97% of scientific papers on the topic of climate science stated a position that global
warming is happening and is—at least in part—caused by human activities. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency explains this in very basic terms:
Our Earth is warming. Earth’s average temperature has risen by 1.4°F over the past
century, and is projected to rise another 2 to 11.5°F over the next hundred years.
Small changes in the average temperature of the planet can translate to large and
potentially dangerous shifts in climate and weather … Humans are largely responsible
for recent climate change. Over the past century, human activities have released large
amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere … Greenhouse gases act like a blanket around Earth, trapping energy in the atmosphere and
causing it to warm. This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect and is natural
and necessary to support life on Earth. However, the buildup of greenhouse gases can
change Earth’s climate and result in dangerous effects to human health and welfare
and to ecosystems. (“Climate Change,” Environmental Protection Agency, 2013)
Scientists have already observed widespread effects from climate change. Sea
levels are rising, glaciers are shrinking, and permafrost is melting. These changes in
the natural environment lead to additional changes in plant and animal life, as
growth patterns change in response to shifting environmental conditions. These
changes are occurring on land and underwater, as climate change affects vast ecosystems and threatens the survival of some, such as coral reefs. Global warming also
influences weather events, such as hurricanes, which gain strength over warmer
ocean waters. But these changes are not necessarily consistent across the globe
or even predictable. For example, the year 2012 included record winter cold in
Europe, record spring heat in the United States, wildfires in Chile, massive flooding
in Australia, extreme drought in the U.S. Southwest and parts of South America,
torrential rains in China, and Superstorm Sandy in the eastern U.S. coast.
The role of organizational communication in climate change and global warming is widespread. Much of the human contribution to climate change can be traced
to factors that began with the Industrial Revolution, such as our systems of energy
production, factory manufacturing, and petroleum-fueled transportation. Thus,
when searching for ways to reverse or at least slow the process of climate change,
these industrial organizations play key roles. Organizational communication is also
implicated in the debates about global warming and what to do about it. These
debates are global ones because countries such as China and India are rapidly
becoming increasingly industrialized, and there are arguments about nations’ obligations to reduce greenhouse gases. In all countries, including the United States,
debates about the balance between economic opportunity and environmental health
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8
Chapter 1
are rife. These debates are further complicated by the gap between scientific and
public perceptions regarding climate change. Though scientific opinions regarding
climate change are nearly unanimous, almost 60% of the American public report
that they either believe climate change is not caused by humans or unsure about
the issue (Marlon et al., 2013). Thus, organizational communication is implicated
in the representation of ideas about climate change to the general public.
Organizational communication is also important in dealing with many of the
effects of global warming, such as the increased incidence of forest fires and extreme
weather events. For example, Silverstein (2012) questions whether organizations such
as public utilities have the decision-making capability and infrastructure needed to
deal with serious disasters such as hurricanes. Finally, addressing global warming
and climate change can open up opportunities for businesses that want to raise their
level of environmental responsibility and sell themselves as “green” companies to
consumers. Although there is debate about the extent to which “going green” is a
move that businesses should take for the overriding goal of protecting the planet
(Marcus & Fremeth, 2009) or only when it can affect the bottom line (Siegel, 2009),
it is clear that an increasing number of organizational executives are making decisions about their businesses with environmental considerations in mind.
Thus, the field of organizational communication must be ready to deal with the
complex questions that stem from climate change and global warming, including:
•
•
•
•
•
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How can organizations reinvent themselves to reduce or eliminate their
contributions to global warming?
How can government representatives engage in productive debate about ways
nations can work together to influence climate change?
How can entrepreneurs address the “greening of organizations” as an
opportunity for both profit and social responsibility?
As climate change increasingly affects local weather events and patterns, how
should local, state, national, and international agencies coordinate their
activities to cope with the human consequences of global warming?
How do organizational and government representatives speak to various
publics about ways in which energy policy and practices influence the
environment?
How can organizations effectively enhance awareness of the ways in which
individuals can make a difference in influencing the process of climate change?
Changing Demographics
Compared to issues like globalization, terrorism, and climate change, the concept
of demographics sounds pretty tame. Demographics refer to statistical descriptions
of characteristics of a population, such as age, race, income, educational attainment, and so on. In one sense, these descriptions are simplistic, but they are also
undeniably important. Demographics describe who we are in the most basic of
terms and thus can have a foundational impact on how we communicate with
each other, how we organize, and how we address critical problems in our social
world as well as what those problems are in a given time and place.
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
9
The most typical way to think about demographics is to consider distributions
of the characteristics of people and to look at those distributions in a comparative
sense across either time or location. In the United States, the demographic trends
are found through the national census completed each decade and through the
tracking of other research centers. Consider a few recent trends, many drawn from
results of the 2010 U.S. Census:
•
•
•
•
The United States is anticipated to be a “majority minority” nation by 2050.
This shift is driven especially by the growth in the Hispanic population, which
has been steadily increasing through both immigration and reproduction patterns. By 2050, it is estimated that the Hispanic portion of the U.S. population
will grow to as high as 29% (“A Milestone en Route to a Majority Minority,”
2012).
Married couples now constitute less than half of all American households, and
only one fifth of households are the traditional image of married couples with
children. This pattern marks a sharp contrast to the middle of the twentieth
century—in 1950, 78% of households included married couples and 43% of
households were traditional nuclear families (“Married Couples Are No
Longer a Majority,” 2011). Interestingly, though, U.S. household size has
grown because of the increase in multigenerational households (“Census 2010:
Household Size Trends,” 2011).
The rural U.S. population is now the lowest it has ever been—16% now
compared to 72% a century ago. In contrast, a third of Americans live in cities
and over half of Americans live in suburbs. The fastest-growing places in
America are small cities in the suburbs of large metro areas in the Sunbelt
region (“Rural U.S. population lowest in history,” 2011).
In 1930, 5.4% of the U.S. population was 65 years or older; by 2007, the
number more than doubled to 12.6% of the population. It is anticipated that
by the year 2050, more than 20% of the U.S. population will be 65 or older
(“Statistics on Aging,” Administration on Aging, 2007).
In terms of sheer description, then, the United States is a dramatically different
place than it was in decades past, and these different descriptors of who we are,
where we live, who we live with, and how long we live lead to dramatically different experiences as we encounter organizations and communicate in them. For example, consider the issue of age. Scholars often divide populations into generational
cohorts that indicate similarities in birth year and associated similarities in experience (Schuman & Scott, 1989). Thus, my mother’s experiences as a member of the
“World War II Cohort” are very different from mine as a member of the “Late
Baby Boomer Cohort” or my daughter’s as a member of the “Millennial Cohort.”
In terms of work experience, members of the World War II Cohort are known for
dependability, long-term employment, and relationships with organized labor.
Members of my cohort are known for their ambition but also their cynicism. Members of my daughter’s generation are coming to be known as technologically savvy
but also a bit spoiled in the ways of work. Clearly, a similar demographic analysis
could be applied to ethnicity, family structure, social class, or household location.
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10
Chapter 1
Case in Point: 400 Million People
The demographic trends presented in this chapter
have highlighted patterns within the U.S. population.
However, given the trends in globalization also considered within this chapter, it is critical to consider
these trends in comparison with demographic developments around the world. For many years, large
populations in areas of the world, such as China,
Japan, and Singapore, fueled a huge economic
expansion in East Asia. However, this pattern is
clearly changing. As Joel Kotkin, author of The Next
Hundred Million: America in 2050 (2010b), points out,
“With a fertility rate 50 percent higher than Russia,
Germany, or Japan, and well above that of China,
Italy, Singapore, South Korea, and virtually all of
Eastern Europe, the United States has become an
outlier among its traditional competitors, all of whose
populations are stagnant and seem destined to eventually decline” (Kotkin, 2010a). Indeed, it is estimated
that the U.S. population will reach 400 million by the
year 2050, and the key employment demographic
group aged 15 to 64 will increase by 42% in the United
States, while this age segment in China and Japan will
decline by 10% and 44%, respectively.
These shifts pose important organizational and
political challenges across the globe. For nations
with an increasing proportion of older citizens, it
will be crucial to find ways to take care of older citizens, and this need is likely to influence many sectors of the economies in these countries. For
example, Kotkin notes that “lacking a developed
social-security system, China’s rapid aging will
start cutting deep into the country’s savings and
per capital income rates” (2010a). For the United
States, the challenge will be to generate jobs for a
growing number of working-age citizens—a particularly daunting task when considering the high unemployment rates seen during the recent United States
and global recession. However, Kotkin believes that
another demographic trend—immigration to the
United States—will be instrumental in addressing
this problem. Increasingly, new residents in the
United States are starting small businesses in basic
industries, such as construction, manufacturing,
agriculture, and energy, and it is these small
businesses—more than megacorporations—that
will be engines of employment. “Expanding our
basic industries, and focusing on the necessary
skills training for those laboring in them, will provide
new opportunities” (Kotkin, 2010a) needed in the
workplaces of tomorrow.
But changing demographics do not just influence the organizational experience
of individuals. They also create new challenges for organizational communication.
Changing demographics result in multicultural workplaces, in workers with
increasing responsibilities to aging family members, in workers with longer commutes, and in workers who telecommute. Changing demographics also pose the
challenge of treating individuals from different ethnic backgrounds, races, ages,
genders, disabilities, and sexual orientations in ways that respect these differences
and create opportunities for meeting both individual and organizational goals.
Thus, questions confronting organizational communication scholars as they consider these demographic shifts include:
•
•
How can we communicate with members of a culturally diverse workforce in
ways that respect difference and help achieve organizational and individual
goals?
How do members of the “sandwich generation” cope with the stresses of work
and family concerns?
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
•
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What are the various communication patterns and needs of individuals
from different age groups?
How can we use communication technology to design virtual workplaces
for employees in a variety of locations?
How do we make the tough decisions regarding the roles of institutions
and government in supporting an aging America?
What role does communication play in assuring a level playing field
for individuals with disabilities?
From this brief consideration of several newsworthy facets of the twenty-first
century, it is clear that we live in a complex world and that organizational communication can play a pivotal role in addressing these complexities. It is important,
though, to consider the ways in which our thinking about organizational communication can best facilitate our ability to make a difference in today’s world. One
important theorist who can help us in this is a scholar named Karl Weick, who we
will encounter later in this book. Weick has a lot to say about how we organize
and make sense of organizing through ongoing interaction. At this point, though,
it is helpful to consider one concept that Weick emphasizes: requisite variety. This
concept suggests that successful organizations and groups need to be as “complicated” as the problems that confront them. For example, the organizational structure of a small catering service can probably be relatively simple. However, if that
small catering service grows into a large restaurant or an even larger food service
organization, the structure needed for decision making, payroll, customer service,
training, and myriad other functions must become increasingly complex. The organization must be as complicated as the problem.
The same principle holds for our consideration of how we should see “organizational communication” as a means for approaching the challenges of today’s
world. We have talked about issues such as globalization, terrorism, climate
change, and changing demographics as just a few of the complexities that must be
dealt with through organizational communication. Thus, if we see these problems
as complicated, we must also complicate our thinking about organizations and
complicate our thinking about communication.
Complicating Our Thinking about Organizations
The first way of complicating our thinking about organizational communication is
to complicate our thinking about organizations. In the first edition of this book
(Miller, 1995), I defined organization as including five critical features—namely,
the existence of a social collectivity, organizational and individual goals, coordinating activity, organizational structure, and the embedding of the organization within
an environment of other organizations. These critical features still hold today, but
in complicating our thinking about organizations, it is important to stretch our
understanding of each of these concepts. For example, when we think about the
idea of “structure,” we need to consider more than basic hierarchical structure or
even more complex team structures. We also need to consider structures based on
collective and communal relationships, structures that eschew hierarchy in favor of
flat organizational forms, and structures that cross boundaries of time and space.
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12
Chapter 1
When we think about the concept of “goals,” we need to move far beyond the economic goals that are often assumed in discussions of the “bottom line.” The goals
that drive many organizations and individuals today involve changing the world in
big and small ways or perhaps simply concern about “connection” itself.
When we work to stretch our thinking in these ways, we see that there are many
examples of organizational types in today’s world that were not often considered in
past decades. To take a basic example, we often think about “businesses”—entities
that are designed to make money—as the epitome of organizations, but scholars are
now increasingly interested in communication processes in nonprofit organizations
(see, e.g., Koschmann, 2012). For both profit and nonprofit organizations, more
and more organizations can be characterized as service organizations rather than
manufacturing organizations. In areas around the globe, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are especially important in coordinating processes of change in firstand third-world nations. It is increasingly common for individuals with similar
needs and goals to come together in organizations known as cooperatives (co-ops)
that are often motivated by a concern for democracy, social justice, and environmental and global responsibility. Furthermore, with advances in computer and communication technology, organizations often do without the brick-and-mortar physical
location and operate as virtual organizations. It is also critical to stretch our thinking
to understand that the features of an “organization” are also relevant for the consideration of social organizations, such as fraternities and sororities, or even families or
groups of friends who are coordinating around valued goals and tasks.
Complicating Our Thinking about Communication
It is also important for us to complicate our thinking about communication if we are
to deal with the complicated world that confronts us. Early models of communication were highly simplistic, arguing that communication could be conceptualized
with a model such as the S-M-C-R model, in which a Source transmits a Message
through a Channel to a Receiver. In the organizational context, this could be seen
as a supervisor (source) asking for volunteers to work on the weekend (message)
through an e-mail (channel) sent to all her employees (receivers). Even when a “feedback loop” is added to this model (e.g., responses to the e-mail), it is clear that it
fails to encompass the varying ways we need to think about communication. Communication is not just about sending simple messages to one or more receivers.
Communication is also about the intricate networks through which computers link
us to others. Moreover, communication is about the creation of meaning systems in
families and cultures; understanding a market segment to enhance persuasion and
increase sales; and the multiple ways information must flow to provide aid when a
natural disaster strikes. It is about framing information about a possible threat so
the public is warned but not panicked. Communication is about coming to an
understanding within a community about issues that both unite and divide.
Robert Craig (1999) proposed a model of communication theory that helps
sort out these various aspects of communication. First, he contrasts a transmission
model of communication with a constitutive model of communication. In a transmission model, communication is a way of moving information from sources to
receivers, similar to the S-M-C-R model. In a constitutive model, communication
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
13
is seen as a “process that produces and reproduces shared meaning” (Craig, 1999,
p. 125). We will consider the ways in which the notion of “constitution” has been
applied in detail to organizational communication processes in Chapter 5. Craig
suggests that the simple distinction between transmission and constitution is not
particularly helpful, though, when considering broader theoretical approaches to
communication. For one thing, he argues that it is not really a fair fight, as the
transmission model is usually just presented as something easy to knock down.
But Craig also believes that the transmission model can be useful to consider in
some cases. For example, when the goal is to get evacuation information to residents in the path of a hurricane, the effective transmission of information is a lot
more important than the creation of shared meaning. However, Craig doesn’t
think we should stop at the simple choice between a transmission model and a constitutive model. Instead, he suggests we complicate our thinking.
Craig argues that we should recast the constitutive model of communication as
a metamodel—an overarching way of thinking about communication. That is, if
we see the constitutive model as a “model of models,” it is possible to constitute
communication in a wide variety of ways. These different ways of constituting
communication can provide different avenues for the development of theory and
research. But more important for our purposes here, various ways of constituting
communication can help us deal with the practical challenges that individuals face
in organizations today. That is, there will be times when it is important to think
about communication as a way of getting information from one person to another.
There will be other times when it is important to think about communication as
shared dialogue and a way to enhance understanding about self and others. There
will be other times when communication is best seen as a means of persuasion and
motivation. Thus, Craig’s metamodel of communication can help us meet the practical challenges of today’s organizational world.
Craig proposed seven domains of communication theory—seven different ways
of thinking about how communication works in the world. These are presented in
Table 1.1, and they range from the notion of communication as information processing (the cybernetic model) to communication as the experience of otherness
and dialogue (the phenomenological model). Table 1.1 also considers how each
way of thinking about communication might be put into play in the organizational
context. It should be clear that these various approaches to communication allow
us to answer—and, perhaps more important, to ask—very different questions
about how organizations and people work in today’s complex society.
In summary, then, our world is becoming increasingly complex, and the intricate situations that arise with globalization, terrorism, climate change, and changing demographics require multifaceted approaches to understanding. Indeed, even
without these issues, life in organizations is complex enough! Thus, it is critical to
complicate our thinking and discussion about “organization” and “communication” in ways advocated by scholars such as Tretheway and Ashcraft (2004) and
Craig (1999). In the final pages of this chapter, we will look ahead to the remainder of the book to consider how these ideas about organization and communication will be brought to bear on traditional and contemporary approaches to the
study of organizational communication and on a wide range of organizational
communication processes.
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14
Chapter 1
Table 1.1
Approaches to the Concept of Communication
Communication
Theorized As:
Possible Use in the
Organizational Context:
Rhetorical
The practical art of
discourse
Considering the communication
strategies of organizational leaders
during times of crisis
Semiotic
Intersubjective mediation
by signs
Studying the ways that organizations
create and sustain identity through
corporate symbolism
Phenomenological
Experience of otherness;
Dialogue
Using dialogue to mediate conflict
between two employees
Cybernetic
Information processing
Finding optimal ways to set up a
communication network system for
employees who telecommute
Sociopsychological
Expression, interaction,
and influence
Using knowledge about personality
and interaction style to improve
conflict management programs
Sociocultural
(Re)production of social
order
Looking at the intersection of
organizational, national, and ethnic
cultures in multinational organizations
Critical
Discursive reflection
Confronting the issue of sexual
harassment in the workplace through
programs designed to shift beliefs
about gender and power
Portions adapted from R. T. Craig (1999). Communication theory as a field. Communication Theory, 9, 119–161.
LOOKING AHEAD
Chapters 2 and 3 will take us back to consider several “founding perspectives” that
have influenced the study of organizational communication. These approaches
originated in other academic fields (e.g., sociology, psychology, management) and
in business and industry and provide the foundation on which the field of organizational communication stands. Several aspects of these founding approaches are
important to note. First, although these schools of thought provide the historical
backdrop for our study of organizational communication, they are not “dead” subjects. Indeed, the influence of these approaches is widely seen in organizations
today, and our discussion of them will consider both their historic and current significance. Second, these approaches are largely prescriptive in nature. That is, these
theorists were primarily interested in prescribing how organizations should
run rather than describing or explaining how they actually do run. Chapter 2 will
take us back to the early part of the twentieth century to explore classical and
bureaucratic approaches to the understanding of organizational communication. In
Chapter 3, we will move to the middle and later years of the twentieth century to
consider two related approaches: human relations and human resources. In human
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The Challenge of Organizational Communication
15
relations approaches, the spotlight is on individual needs; in human resources
approaches, it is on the role of employees as valued contributors to organizational
functioning. In Chapters 4 through 6 of this textbook, we will consider more contemporary ways of viewing organizations that shift the focus in several ways. First,
these contemporary approaches constitute ways to understand and explain organizational communication. In contrast to founding approaches, they are not prescriptive theories but are theories that can be used to enhance our understanding of any
organization, be it guided by classical, human relations, or human resources practitioners. Second, these approaches are primarily used by scholars rather than practitioners, although, of course, there are important pragmatic implications that stem
from all these approaches. Third, all of these approaches continue to exert substantial influence today in terms of how organizational communication is studied. An
organizational communication scholar would find research stemming from all of
these approaches in current academic journals.
Chapter 4 will consider two metaphors that guided the study of organizational
communication during much of the latter part of the twentieth century and continue to exert influence today. The first of these, the systems approach, looks at
organizations as complex interactions of systems components and processes. The
second, the cultural approach, considers organizations as emergent entities of values,
norms, stories, behaviors, and artifacts. In Chapter 5, we will look at a set of ideas
that hold great currency in today’s study of organizational communication—
the notion that organizations are constituted through communication. Finally, in
Chapter 6 we will turn to critical and feminist approaches that emphasize various
aspects of organizational power and control and aspire to the emancipation of marginalized voices within the organizational context.
In the second half of this textbook, we will move our focus from approaches
that inform our understanding of organizational communication to the specific processes to which these approaches have been applied. What do I mean by process?
Simply, it is something that happens in an organization. Organizations are marked
by constant activity. People learn about new jobs, make decisions, deal with conflict, cope with customers, program computers, form alliances, institute change,
and cope with differences. All these communication processes have been the focus
of organizational communication scholars, and the last half of this book will consider our knowledge about what happens in these processes, how it happens, and
why it happens.
The first four chapters that consider organizational communication processes
can be seen as “enduring” processes because they consider things that have probably
been happening in organizations for as long as organizations have existed.
In Chapter 7, we will look at assimilation—or the processes through which
individuals attach to—and detach from—organizations. Chapter 8 investigates
how communication influences organizational decision making and knowledge
management, and Chapter 9 presents theories and research on the role of communication in organizational conflict. Then, in Chapter 10, we look at change in organizations and the leadership processes that are often crucial in terms of both
change and stability.
Finally, in the last four chapters of this textbook, we will consider some of the
organizational communication processes that have emerged in the last twenty to
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16
Chapter 1
thirty years as the workplace has changed and evolved. These “emerging” processes
in organizational communication certainly existed in past organizations, but current
developments in the workplace have brought these issues to the forefront, and they
increasingly demand the attention of both organizational practitioners and researchers. In Chapter 11, we will look at a fundamental shift in the way we have come to
view organizations and the people in them. This is the shift from assuming organizations are always “rational” and “logical” to acknowledging the role of emotion
in organizational life. In Chapter 12, we discuss the phenomenon of diversity in
the workplace, considering the ways in which various aspects of diversity—race,
culture, gender, age, sexual orientation, and others—affect communication in the
workplace. In Chapter 13, we examine communication technology in the workplace
and how technology has shifted the way we work and think about work. Finally, in
Chapter 14, we conclude in much the same way we began—by considering trends
that are changing the landscape of organizations.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. How have organizations that you work in or
have dealings with been affected by issues such
as globalization, terrorism, climate change,
and changing demographics? How do these
issues have different effects on different people
and different kinds of organizations?
2. Consider how airports deal with homeland
security. What organizational communication processes have changed as a result of the
threat of terrorism? Do you think airports
and airlines have dealt effectively with these
changes? Why or why not?
3. What kinds of organizational structures and
processes stem from globalization? Why are
these new structures and processes necessary? How do they enhance—or detract
from—the quality of life for individuals
working in or with the organizations?
4. How would each of the communication
domains considered in this chapter
approach the organizational issues that
arose in the aftermath of events such as the
BP oil spill, the Boston Marathon bombings, or tornadoes that often strike the
midsection of the United States? How do
these different lenses help us understand the
complexity of organizational communication processes?
KEY CONCEPTS
globalization
outsourcing
terrorism
war on terror
homeland security
climate change
“green” companies
demographics
generational cohorts
requisite variety
transmission model of
communication
constitutive model of
communication
domains of communication theory
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Classical Approaches
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2
After Reading This Chapter, You Should …
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Understand the ways in which a machine metaphor provides insight into organizational
communication.
Appreciate the historical context of the early years of the twentieth century when classical approaches to organizing were proposed.
Be familiar with Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management, especially his principles of management regarding structure, power, reward, and attitude.
Know how Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy corresponds to Fayol’s and be able to
discuss the forms of authority that Weber sees as existing in organizations and
bureaucracies.
Be able to describe the key aspects of Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management and explain how his ideas responded to the concerns about industry in his time.
Understand how communication processes are influenced by the Theory of Classical
Management and be able to recognize principles of classical organizing in contemporary organizations.
Before the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century, most work was conducted by individuals or in small groups. Goods were created by individual artisans, by families, or in small “cottage industries” in which skilled workers
accomplished large tasks from start to finish. For example, consider a shoemaker
during the eighteenth century. A cobbler during this time period would put
together a shoe from tanned leather to finished product (and perhaps tan the
leather too). Clearly, this is a different type of organizational process from today’s
shoe factory.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth century,
common methods of producing goods began to change. Instead of cottage industries, increased mechanization and industrialization led to the organization of
larger groups of people in factory and assembly-line settings. Scholars and consultants in the early twentieth century tried to make sense of these new organizational
forms and to provide business and industry with advice about how best to organize
in light of these new developments. A number of theories gained prominence
17
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18
Chapter 2
during this period. Three of the more important ones are Henri Fayol’s Theory of
Classical Management, Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy, and Frederick
Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management. Before we consider the details of each
theory, let us consider what they have in common—the belief that organizations
should be modeled after machines.
THE MACHINE METAPHOR
The Industrial Revolution had profound impacts on how people…